POPESCU IULIAN PhD, MD, Clinical Department of Radio-Biology at the Fundeni Clinical Institute in Bucharest
e-mail: popdociul@yahoo.com
ALINA HALPERN PhD, SF.ŞTEFAN Hospital Bucharest
INTRODUCTION
Study of the molecular pathology of lung cancer (LC) has contributed
and is further contributing to a more
deepened knowledge of pre-neoplastic lesions, of carcinogenesis
process, of metastatic invasion and
disseminations. By simultaneously
highlighting multiple markers the early diagnosis
becomes possible in the targeted treatment of
LC. So far the LC
treatment was a uniform treatment
for a heterogeneous disease. These cumulated data give hope for the
increase of survival rate, which
currently is one of the lowest
(15% over 5 years) (1).
(15% over 5 years) (1).
Among the subtypes of non-small cell lung cancer,
the squamous form has prevailed as frequency percentage compared to the other
three subtypes.
After 1950 the scientific world was convinced of
the smoking role in the etiology of LC (85 % of cases are due to smoking) (2).
At that time of cigarettes without filter the squamous form was predominant as
frequency and location in the central bronchial. By introducing filter
cigarettes the tar disappeared (or lowered) and increased the volatile part.
Following this the frequency of adenocarcinoma (ADC) was higher and the
location became predominantly peripheral (2,3).
Most LC subtypes derive from various lung
components. Thus, in non-small cell cancer, in squamous form, and in 20% of the
ADC cases they arise in the central compartment of the bronchial pathway from
STEM cells, represented by bronchial basal cells. These candidate stem cells
differentiate in ciliated or mucous cells ( the latter can give rise to central
adenocarcinoma and, possibly, also the neuroendocrine cells of the terminal
bronchia(2,3,4).
The terminal breathing units consist of the
respiratory bronchioles and alveolar cells. The STEM cells capable to
proliferate are CLARA cells (expressing CC10) and type II pneumocyte expressing
surfactant and transcription factor TTF -1 ( thyroid- transcription factor 1 (2).
Under the action of environmental factors at the
bronchial epithelium level occur histopathological changes. They may evolve,
but may also regress and others may remain stationary for years (5,6).
Development is gradual, both temporally and
spatially (multistep, multicenter).
Due to the predominance of tobacco’s volatile aspect
appeared the notion of cancerization (SLAUGHTER) field (7). This means
that it is possible to find more areas with genetically altered cells. These
areas (clones) play a central
role in cancer development
(5, 8, 9). The large number of preneoplastic cell in the proliferation field increases
the risk of cancer. This explains
the high incidence of primary
type cancers, but occurring secondarily
(3%) (2).
Exposure to carcinogens results in the formation of a field of altered cells which may evolve by altering
the DNA then further by genetic and
epigenetic changes, which also adds to the genome alteration. These phenomena further lead to local invasion and
then to metastatic disease (5)
MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY
OF THE
SQUAMOUS FORM OF LUNG CANCER
GENETICAL
ALTERATIONS
At the DNA level we distinguish deletions, insertions, point mutations of some dominant genes such as the Ras gene, some tumorsuppressor genes such
as p53, Rb gene, p16 gene.
At chromosome level we
distinguish the loss of heterozygosity (LOH) of
the p53, p16 genes, and DNA aneuploidy.
Epigenetic changes – hypermethylation of tumorsupressing genes, histone deacetylation
(5.10 11). Epigenetic
changes in LC contribute to cellular transformation by:
-
Modification of the chromatin structure
-
Modification of the specific gene expression, This includes
DNA methylation, change of histone
and chromatin proteins.
-
Changes in the micro-RNA (mi-RNA) responsible
for silencing tumor suppressor genes and
encoding oncogenes expression ( 2 )
In squamous cancer we have deletions in areas
3p and 13q , leading to molecular
alterations in normal tissue.
Loss of heterozygosity is a common occurrence in carcinogenesis. Loss of heterozygosity in 3p
chromosome is an early event in
cancer evolution and it is observed,
in 90% of small cell and squamous cancer cases. Instead
in ADC is seen in only 50% of cases (5,12 )
There are also other areas with loss of heterozygosity such as -3p, 3p12, 3p14.2 3p21.3, 3p24, 3p25. These areas contain several
tumor-supressor genes ( 5, ).
Loss of heterozygosity is also noticed in areas-2q, 9p.21, 8.21.22, 13q14
(Retinoblastom Rb gene) and 17p.13 ( p53 gene). Allelic losses in areas
2q, 3p and 22q play an important part in
the development of squamous cancer (5,13 ).
P53 gene
mutations
The p53 gene is located on the 17p.13 chromosome.
It encodes a transcription factor, activating the transcription of many
correlated genes p21, MDM2,GAAD5, Bax..
The p53 gene, binding to p 21 gene, induces its
expression, which
in turn has a inhibiting function of the cell cycle in the G/S
area.
The p53 gene binds to MDM2 gene,
a protein that affects cell cycle, apoptosis, tumorigenesis.
The Bax gene
is forming a hetero-dimer with the Bcl-2 gene and plays a role in apoptosis.
The p53 gene has multiple roles in
maintaining stability of the cell genom during cell stress
due to DNA alteration and hypoxia,
when proto-oncogenes are activated.
P53 dysfunction is the most frequent genetic
alteration and important
in lung carcinogenesis and the
p53 gene alteration area is 17p.13.
The p53 gene mutations are more
frequent in non-small
cell lung cancer (90%) and 65% in non-small lung cancer. Within non-small cell lung cancer
there is a higher frequency in squamous form and in large cell lung cancer, but less in ADC (14 ).
Mutations of the p53 gene lead to impossibility to
activate the p21 gene and produce a
supression of the function of tumorsupression gene, which facilitates cell proliferation
( 15 ).
A single point mutation in bronchial epithelium consisting of transversion G: C to T: A in l245 codon is morphologically highlighted
by changes of squamous
metaplasia type, moderate and minimum dysplasia (16).
The P53 gene mutations are hosted in
the middle of gene, in codons 157, 245,
248, 273. These
mutational areas correlate to the effect of tobacco carcinogens. Mutations in
codon 157 seem to be unique in LC (17 ).
The p53 mutations are observed in one third of the minimum and moderate dysplasia and reach half
of the cases of severe dysplasia and CIS. In invasive cancer they reach to over 75% of cases (Beneth 18).
We thus have a continuous
growth, which is parallel to the
morphological development.
P53 mutations are found in 50%
of smokers, are early
both in squamous form, as well as
in ADC (18.19).
P53 mutations frequent in lung cancer generate the p53
protein level, which is highlighted by
histochemical methods. Thus the frequency of p53
mutations increases continuously from minimum
dysplasia up to invasive
cancer.
we
have - 29% in minimum dysplasia
26% in moderate dysplasia
59% in severe dysplasia
58,5% in CIS
67,5% in micro-invasive
79,5% in invasive cancer
(Beneth18)
The gradual increase of p53 mutations is a marker for
pre-neoplastic lesions.
Bcl-2 proto-oncogene
This gene encodes a
protein that inhibits apoptosis. This protein is expressed in the basal cells
of normal bronchial epithelium. Bcl -2 protects the cells against programmed
death.
The positive expression
of Bcl-2 was found in 25% of squamous cancer and only in 12% of ADC cases.
Bcl-2 is a proto-oncogene involved in the translocation 14:18, which is a
chromosomal abnormality. The survival is higher in Bcl-2 positive patients and
patients over 60 years have a better prognosis.( 20,21,22 )
The
p53-Sp1 disorder
DNMT (DNA-5.cytosine-methyl-transferaza). It is an enzyme that methylates the cytosine residues from CpG areas (islands
containing multiple tumor-suppressor genes).
Its over-expression was related to
p53 mutations and
high expression of Sp-1. Patients with DNMT
over-expression and high
expression of Sp-1-1 have a reticent prognosis. DNMT Disorder
is associated with p53 mutations, and high expression of the Sp-1. The epigenetic
alteration of tumor suppressor genes
leads to DNMT over-expression, which further
leads to tumor-genesis and
a reticent prognosis (23)
The
PTEN(MMAC-1) tumor suppressor gene
The PTEN(phosphatase and tensin homolog on
chomosome 10) tumor suppressor gene, which is also
named MMAC-1(mutated in multiple advanced cancers) is located in 10q.23(
5,24,25 ) area.
PTEN plays a role in apoptosis, cell
migration and cell dissemination (5,26,27).
In non-small cell lung cancer, are found deletions
and mutations of PTEN only in 11% of
the cases (5,28,29)
Aberrant methylation of the p16 (INK4) pathway
P16 (INK4 ) is an inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinase 4 and inhibits Rb phosphorylation , making this
as a tumor - suppressor gene. It is found in the 9p.21 area.
Disruption of the p16 function leads to Rb hyper-phosphorylation and
inactivation. This Rb inactivation leads in turn to a Rb dissociation from the
transcription factor E2F (a transcription factor that activates the S-phase genes
) leading to cell proliferation .
Along with Rb pathway inactivation is also observed losses of RB alleles in
the 13q14 chromosome area, but only in 15 % of non-small cell lung cancer (
5,30,31 ).
Abnormalities of p16 , cyclin D -1 and CDK -4 are seen in 70 % of cases of
small cell lung cancer.
The P16INK4 gene is altered particularly in non-small cell lung cancer by
aberrant methylation in 25 % of cases and through deletions or point mutations
in 10 % -14 % of cases. The p16INK 4 gene inactivation by methylation is
noticed 17 % in preneoplastic hyperplasia
, 24 % squamous metaplasia and in CIS reaches 50 % .
Homozygous mutations and deletions are seen especially in late-stage of
non-small cell lung cancer (32,33,34 ).
TELOMERASE
Telomerase is a reverse transcriptase that
stabilizes telomere length by hexameric fragment addition - TTA : GGG at
telomere ends and compensate losses ( 5 ).
The hTERT catalytic subunit (human telomerase
reverse transcriptase) is expressed in embryonic stem cells and germ cells of
the adult male. In adults is not seen but in the areas of cellular
proliferation for tissue recovery (hematopoietic stem cells, activated
lymphocytes , epidermis basal cells and in the proliferative endometrium and in
the cells from intestinal crypts. (5)
Telomere shortening is an early genetic
abnormality in bronchial carcinogenesis, predominantly in pre-invasive lesions
that precede the expression of telomerase and p53 - Rb pathway inactivation
(5.35)
Reactivation of telomerase expression is essential
for cell proliferation, leading to immortality.
Telomerase positive activity was observed in 26%
of normal bronchial epithelial cells and in 23 % of the epithelium of the small
and periphery bronchioles.
Together with the histological changes, the increase
in telomerase activity reaches 71 % in hyperplasia, 80% in metaplasia and 100%
in dysplasia and CIS ( 5.36 ) . After this gradual increase, we have a decrease
in invasive cancer.
Increased expression (ectopic) bronchial epithelia telomerase
prior to transformation into cancer. Detection of telomerase
protein in non-cancerous bronchial epithelium, becomes a marker to
developments CP (37 ).
Disordering telomerase occurs as -
a) the majority of lesions express hTERT, but with
low enzymatic activity when compared to the terminal
area. We have 4% in the tissue adjacent to
tumor and 80% in the cancer area (5.38)
b) cells express hTERT, but an intense over-regulation is observed in CIS from
the adjacent invasive lesions,
indicating an imminent invasion.
c) In pre-neoplastic lesions in ADC there are no telomerase
changes ( 39 )
The hTERT expression is correlated with p53, Ki67 (proliferation index) and with the
ratio of Bax-Bcl-2.
We thus have a coupling
between telomerase reactivation-
proliferation, and apoptosis resistance (35). The detection of hTERT protein
in the non-cancer bronchial epithelium becomes
a marker for patients
with high risk (40). Recently it has been noticed that the hTERT gene also
presents a functional polymorphism that contributes as prognostic factor in
non-small cell lung cancer.
EGFR(epithelial growth factor receptor)
EGFR is a tyrosin-kinase receptor. It is released into the epithelial tissue. EGFR induces
cancer through three major mechanisms for
epithelial developments (5) –
a) over expression of EGFR ligands
b) EGFR amplification
c) mutational activation of EGFR
a) EGFR over expression in non-small
cell lung cancer is between 50% -80%, of which 70% in squamous cancer
and 50% in the ADC. We find an over expression
also in pre-neoplastic lesions.
EGFR over expression
and activation are important signs in non-small
cell lung cancer (41). Over expression
and amplification are commonly
associated with squamous cancer.
When EGFR is activated it induces Ras signaling pathway and thus is involved in cytoplasmic-skeletal rearrangement (
42 )
b) EGFR amplification is seen in –
non-small cell cancer 33%-45%
squamous cancer 10%-27%
adenocarcinoma 10%-33%
c) mutations are noticed in –
non-small cell cancer 13%
squamous cancer 0%
adenocarcinoma 20%-55%
Therefore the squamous cancer is characterized by over expression of EGFR (70%), amplification (10% -27%) and lack of mutations.
Activation of EGFR leads to influencing MAPK
(mitogen activated protein kinase), which is a signal of transduction and Keratin5.
Keratin 5 is
specifically expressed in the basal layer of epithelium. In squamous cancer there
is an over expression of Keratin 5 (41).
Recently it has been described
a new molecular circuit
in non-small cell cancer comprising
-
ADAM17(a
disintegrin and metallo-proteinase) which is a regulator of the EGFR expression through
the activation of Notch-1. It is
also called TACE(tumor
necrosis factor-alfa converting enzime). Is an enzime being part of the ADAM protein family of
metalloproteinases and disintegrines.
-
NOTCH-1 is a
transduction signal a control pathway of ADAM17
There is a significant correlation between ADAM17
, NOTCH-1 signalling and the increased level of the EGFR expression. They have
a role in tumor genesis and neoplastic cell survival. ADAM17 and NOTCH-1 constitute future therapeutic
target(42)
RECENT HIGHLIGHTED
MECHANISMS IN SQUAMOUS CANCER
Nrf-2 and KEAP-1
Nrf-2 (nuclear factor erytroid-2-related factor
-2) Is a key factor
of redox-sensitive transcription involved in mitochondrial biogenesis. It regulates the enzymes
expression of electrophilic and xenobiotic detoxification and protein efflux conferring a cytoprotection against the oxidative stress
and apoptosis in
normal cells.
Nuclear expression of NRF-2 is-
Nuclear expression of NRF-2 is-
in non-small cell LC 26%
in the
squamous form of LC is of 38%
in
Adenocarcinoma is of 18% ( 43 )
Nuclear expression of Nrf-2 was related
to a low survival.
Nuclear expression of Nrf-2 was also
related to the decrease of period –disease free- in squamois cancer after adjuvant chemotherapy
Nuclear expression of NRF-2 plays a role in the squamous
resistance to the treatment with Cis-Platinum
KEAP-1.(Kelch-like Ech-associated protein-1) It is a protein encoded by the gene of
the same name. It interacts with
the Nrf-2 in a redox-sensitive.
KEAP.1 is an inhibitor of the Nrf-2
Her expression is low or absent in
non-small cell LC. It predominates in ADC (62%) compared to the squamous form (46%)
Increased expression of Nrf-2 and KEAP-1 expression
decreases are abnormalities in non-small cell LC
and are related with a poor prognosis.
The structural base of the KEAP-1
activity defects is
caused in LC by point mutations. KEAP-1 mutations lead to activation
of Nrf-2 in non-small cell LC (43,44
). Further the activation of Nrf-2 facilitates tumorigenicity
and contributes to chemotherapy resistance.
Conversely, reducing the expression
of Nrf-2 (ARM-1-mediated) lung cancer induces
generation of oxygen-reactive species,
suppress cell growth and increases sensitivity to chemotherapy.
Therefore by targeting Nrf-2 activity in
lung cancer-particularly in cancer with KEAP-1 mutations we can have a strategy for inhibiting the tumor growth and can
hamper the emergence of chemical resistance to chemotherapy (
43,44 )
SOX2
It is a key transcription factor in mammalian for the development and maintenance
of both embryonic stem cells and
of stem cells from
other tissues (45).
Its over expression was found in several
tumors. SOX2 is
an oncogene.
SOX2 is over-expressed in squamous cancer.
In squamous cancer out of 20 cases, 15 cases
were stained for SOX2.
Instead, for adenocarcinoma were stained for SOX2
20cazuri only 4 cases
of 20 ADC cases. Also
they have stained positively for both, 14 of 20 cases.
Instead no ADC
cancer was not stained positively
for both ( 45 )
FUS-1
FUS-1 gene is a gene located in the
chromosome p16 area.112. Plays a role in maintaining the genomic integrity.
Protein of FUS-1 gene shows a very
frequent decrease and a lowering in the
expression of squamous cancer. Reducing the
protein may play a role in the
early pathogenesis of squamous cancer.
Tumors show a low
expression of FUS-1
protein, as compared to normal
epithelium.
Reducing the FUS-1 expression was observed in 100% of cases of small
cell LC in 80% of cases in non- small
cell LC. In squamous cancer there was an
expression decrease in 87% of cases and in adenocarcinoma in 79%
of cases.
Loss of FUS-1 expression has prognostic-independent value, concerning the survival. ( 46 )
MARKERI SPECIFIC TO SQUAMOUS FORM
Markers specific to the squamous form are :
-
Tumor protein
63(transformation related protein 63) is encoded by the p63 gene. It belongs to
the family of p53, p63 ,p73. It is a transcription factor.
It is highlighted poorly differentiated squamous cancer, differentiating it from ADC or small cell cancer. (wikipedia)
-
Cito-Keratin
5/6. It is
seem in
the basal-like carcinomas.
The immunoreactivity degree correlates with the degree of survival. Survival increases along with the increase of immunoreactivity. Immunoreactivity is higher
in men than women. It is noticed
in most non-small cell cancers. It distinguishes
mesothelioma from pleural metastasis and from adenocarcinoma.
It is very common in squamous cancer, namely squamous cancer with
positive CK5 /6 and
negative TTF-1 (thyroid trasforming factor1).
(Wikipedia)
-
Desmoglein 3 is a protein encoded by the DSG3 gene.
It is interacting with PKP 3 (plakophilin
3 - is a protein encoded
by the PKP 3 gene). It acts on cellular
adhesion-dependent on desmosomes and with signaling
pathways.
The desmoglein 3 expression shows in squamous cancer
a specificity of 90%, but only a sensitivity of just 88% (47,48 )
Also, micro-RNA(mi RN$A) are an alternative for completing the histological type of squamous cancer. Thus hsa-miR.-205 has
a high sensitivity
of 96% and a specificity of 90% in specifying the histological
diagnosis of squamous form (47.49)
Finally, in antineoplastic treatment, Pemetrexed
has won currently a leading role.
He is a multi-targeted chemotherapeutic agent. It acts on the expression of thymydilat-synthase. (47,50)
There have been obtained promising
results in ADC compared to the
squamous form. This is due to the fact that
the squamous form shows a high expression
of thymydilat-synthetase. Thus the combination of pemetrexed with Cisplatinum
increases the survival which is higher in ADC than
the squamous form. Instead Cisplatinum combination
with gemcitabine is more effective in squamous cancer than in ADC (47, 51, 52).
The squamous form of non-small cell lung cancer is clinically and genetically heterogeneous (53)
Four subtypes have been highlighted depending on the mARN expression. Tumor differentiation and sex of patients were
associated with that subtype.
The MRNA expression profile of these 4 subtypes
contains different biological processes. Thus:
-
First subtype called -
primitive - is
correlated with proliferation. It has a severe prognosis on survival.
-
Second subtype called – classic-
shows a xenobiotic metabolism
-
Third subtype called –secretory – is
related to the immune process.
-
Fourth subtype called – basal – is
related to cell adhesion.
This stratification leads to a more
accurate prognosis. They have a
different survival prognosis and will be distinct targets
in pharmacological treatment (53)
The squamous form represents about 30% of small cell lung cancer.(54) and
The squamous form is defined by the presence of cytoplasmic keratinization and (or) desmosomes (bridges between cells) (53). Squamous
form predominates in men and smokers. Histologically
we distinguish papillary, small
cell, clear cell and basaloid form (53)
Classification by mRNA expression is a progress. The four
subtypes are distinguished by survival duration, demographics aspects,
physical characteristics, biological
processes. They have correspondence
with normal lung cell types.
.
I)
PRIMITIVE type. At this subtype the main functional data is proliferation.
It includes the following genes
-
MCM10 (mini
chromosome maintenance 10) The overexpression of this gene characterises this
subset and is a biomarker of it.
-
E2F3 (E2F
transcription factor 3) E2F transcription factor modulator of proliferation in which
the main members of E2F family are –E2F3 and E2F8(58)
-
TYMS(thymidilate
sintethase)(57)
-
POLA1(polimerase
alfa 1)
II) CLASSICAL
type. At
this subtype
the distinctive functional aspect xenobiotic metabolism that
detoxifies foreign particles. This form is seen in
smokers compared to non-smokers.
It includes the following genes
-
GPX2
-
ALDH3A1(59))
-
TP63 is a
transcription factor essential for developing the stratified epithelium. It is found in 3q27-28area. It is the main bio-marker
for this subtype (60)
In squamous form it is overexpressed and amplified
(61)
III) At
this SECRETORY subtype the main
functional theme is immune. This subtype includes genes-
-
1)ARHGD6B –
Rho GDP dissociation inhibitor Beta
-
2)TNFRSP14_tumor
necrosis factor receptor14
-
3)NF-Kappa
Beta with over expression
The main biomarker of this subtype is KRT7
4) over expression of the secretory lung cell
markers such as
-
MUC-1(mucin)
-
SFTPC,SFTPB,SFTPD(62).
These are lung surfactant proteins
In this SECRETORY subtype is also found an increased
expression of TTF-1 as in adenocarcinoma (similarity
by glandular cells)(63)
IV) BASAL
SUBYPE. The functional aspect is related to cell
adhesion function.
It includes genes such as:
It includes genes such as:
a) Laminines (LAMB3 and LAMC2)
b) Colagene (COL1A1 and COL17A1)
c) Integrine (ITCGB4 and ITCGB5)
d) Claudin 1
In addition are added genes related to
epidermal developments such as:
a) Keratin5(KRT5)
b) S100A
c) GJB5(GAP jonction proteinA)
Under the basal type also presents over expression
of several genes of the S100 family, such as
-S100A2,S100A3,S100A7,S100A8,S100A9.S100A12,S100A14. But S100A8 and S100A9 sunt
overexpressed in the basal layer in psoriatic epidermal tissue (64)
S100A2 is overexpressed in the basal layer of the
lung epithelium and in squamous form (65)
KRT5 is a marker of the basal layer of the epithelial
tissue (66)
Besides this basal subtype is enreached with genes
whose product is located in cell membrane
COMPARATIVE DATA OF THE 4 SUBTYPES OF
THE SQUAMOUS FORM
In morfological terms, grading is related to that
subtype.
-
PRIMITIVE subtype
has an overrepresentation of poorly diferentiated tumors.
-
BASAL subtype
has an overrepresentation of well-diferentiated tumors.
-
CLASSIC and
SECRETORY subtypes have a high proportion of 3rd stage tumors.
In terms of gender,
- Women are represented by
the primitive type
- Men are overrepresented by the classic type.
In terms of smoking
-
the classic subtype has smokers with high doses of
tobacco and have the lowest proportion of non-smokers.
In terms of time, global
surviving (OS) and
(or) the relapse-free survival are different and each subtype has its
survival:
-
PRIMITIVE subtype has the worst
figures concerning overall survival (OS) and relapse-free survival (RFS)
in all stages of the disease, including Stage 1
-
Other subtypes have an equal survival
The percentage of subtypes within the squamous form of non-small cell lung cancer -
-
16% PRIMITIV subtype
-
36% CLASSIC subtype
-
26% SECRETORY
subtype
-
21% BASAL subtype
These subtypes have similarities- depending on the
expression- with various populations of lung normal cells. Thus-
-
The BASAL subtype
has characteristics similar to normal basal cells, namely cell adhesion and main
development functions of epidermis. Thus for example genes S100A2 and KRT5. They
are markers of the BASAL
subtype are similar to normal basal
cells
-
The SECRETOR subtype
has similarity to lung
secretory cells and submucosal glands.
-
The primitive subtype is distinguished by
functional cell proliferation, reduced survival, is predominant in women and non-smokers
and has an over abundance of
poorly differentiated tumors.
-
The CLASSIC
subtype is the usual type of squamous form of non-small cell lung cancer. It has
the highest prevalence (37%), predominant in male, smokers. The TP63 gene
overexpression presents a possible TP63 gene amplification and locus
amplification of in the 3q27-28 area
-
These subtypes have cells similar to the ancestral cells. MRNA expression persists in the progeny of tumor
cells.
Subtypes of the squamous
form of non-small cell lung cancer are useful
for the targeted therapy and for selecting groups of patients.
CONCLUSIONS
Lung cancer in squamous form and 20% of adenocarcinomas arise in the central compartment of the airways, from stem cells represented by basal bronchial cells, which differentiate in ciliated or mucus cells (for 20% of adenocarcinomas from the center area).Its development is progressive and gradual (multistep, multicenter).
In squamous cancer we have deletions in areas 3p şi13q. Loss of heterozygosity (LOH) is seen at 3p chromosome, early event in 90% of cases.
The P53 gene dysfunction is the most frequent genetic alteration and important for carcinogenesis.The p53 mutations are early and frequent. They gradually increase from 26% in moderate dysplasia to 79.5% in invasive cancer.
The increased expression of the telomerase precedes to neoplastic transformation. Increased expression of telomerase in normal epithelium starts (26%) and increased to 80% in squamous metaplasia, and reaches 100% in severe dysplasia and CIS. Its expression correlates with p53, Ki67şi ratio Bax/Bcl 2.
EGFR amplification is shown in 10%.-27%
There is a significant correlation between high levels of EGFR and EGFR- ADAM17 expression regulator and NOTCH.1 signaling pathway, which is a signal transduction. They control tumorigenesis and neoplastic cell survival. They constitute future therapeutic targets.
KEAP-1 interacts with Nrf2 and is an inhibitor thereof.
Increasing the Nrf2 expression and decreasing the KEAP-1 expression through mutation is associated with poor prognosis, facilitates tumorigenesis and increases resistance to chemotherapy.
The reduced expression of FUS-1 has a value-independent – to other factors concerning the global surviving. Reduced expression is
All these new conquests in molecular pathology of non-small cell lung cancer will improve early diagnosis, prognostic and targeted treatment.
The p16(cyclinD1-cyclin-dependent kinase4) retinoblastoma pathway is found in 9p.21 area.
Inactivating the p16 pathway through aberrant methylation increases from 24% in squamous metaplasia to 50% in CIS.
Homozygous deletions and mutations are observed in the late stage.
EGFR gene. Its over expression is seen in non-small cell LC of 50% to 80%, of which 70% in squamous form and 50% in adenocarcinoma. Its over expression correlates with a severe prognosis.
The EGFR mutations is not seen in squamous cancer.
Nrf-2 and KEAP-1
The Nrf 2 nuclear expression (transcription factor regulating the expression of the enzymes in the detoxification process) is observed 26% in non-small cell LC, 38% in squamous form and in adenocarcinoma in 18% of cases. Its expression correlates with low survival and resistance to chemotherapy.
SOX2
Is a transcription factor. Its overexpression sa is oncogene. SOX2 is overexpressed in squamous cancer.
FUS-1
The FUS-1 protein expression is low in squamous cancer.
100% in the case of small cell LC
82% in the case of non-small cell LC
87% in cases of squamous cancer
The squamous form of non-small cell cancer shows depending on the mRNA expression four sub-types: primitive, classical, secretory and basal, with biologically distinct shapes and different prognosis.
.
GLOSSARY (wikipedia)
1)
CC10 Clara Cell protein10. It is an inhibitor of phospholipase 2. It is regulated
by the transcription factors AP-1
and Hepatocyte nuclear factor 3 (HNF-3).
It is expressed by non ciliated epithelial cells of the airway.
CC10 contribute to the loss of non-small cell cancer
carcinogenesis. Its overexpression reduces invasion
in the absence of matrix-metalloproteinases
MMP-2 and MMP-9.
2)
MDM2(murine
double minute 2). Is an oncogene. Is a negative regulator of p53, that is
subregulates p53 protein.
3)
SP-1(specific
protein-1). Is a human transcription factor
4)
GADD45(growth
arrest and DNA damage gene 45) Is a response gene for DNA alterations.
ZBRK1 has a repressive action on GADD45.
5)
p16INK4A. Is
a tumor supressor gene participating in stopping the cell in G phase. A member
of the IN K4 protein family inhibits CDK4 and Rb phosphorylation mediated by CDK6. It is encoded by the gene Cyclin Dependent Kinase Inhibitor 2A.
6)
ADAM 17(A
Disintegrin And Metalloproteinase). It is an enzyme (glycoprotein) which is part of the ADAM family protein,
a member of disintegrines and metalloproteinases and is involved in the processing of TNF-alpha (tumor nuclear
factor-alpha) to cell-surface, TNF-alpha being a mediator of inflammation.
Plays a role in the Notch signaling pathway.
7)
NOTCH. Is a signaling pathway. It has 4 Notch receptors,
which are transmembrane -proteins receptors. Notch signaling
pathway is important for cell-cell
communication involving gene regulation mechanisms which control the
cell differentiation process
8)
Disintegrines
are a family of small proteins, which act as platelet aggregation
inhibitors and integrin-dependent
cell adhesion.
9)
Desmosomes. They are a specialized cell
structure in inter-cellular
adhesion.
10)
POLA-1(polymerase(DNA
directed) alpha-1.It has a role in DNA replication.
11)
GPX2
(glutathione peroxidase2) is a human enzyme encoded by the GPX2 gene
12)
ALDH3A1(aldehyde
dehydrogenase3 family,member A1). ALDH plays a key role in the detoxification of
alcohol-derived aceto-aldehydes. They are involved in the metabolism of corticosteroids, biogenic amines, neurotransmitters, and lipid peroxidation.
Usually it oxidizes the aromatic-aldehyde substrate.
It has a role in the
oxidation of toxic aldehydes.
13)
TNFSP14(tumor
necrosis factor ligand super family member 14). Also called CD258(LIGHT). The protein encoded by this gene is a member of
the family. It stimulates lymphoid
cells, T cells, influences
apoptosis in various tumors. It prevents apoptosis
mediated by TNF-alpha.
14)
NF-kappa
Beta. It is a protein complex that controls DNA transcription. It is involved in cellular response to various stimuli - cytokines,
free radicals.
15)
KERATYN 7
(keratyn type1 cytoskeletal 7(cytokeratin7) is a protein encoded by KRT7 gene. Is located in the 12q12-q13 area. It has a role in epithelial cell differentiation.
16)
MUC-1(cell
surface associated (MUC-1), or polymorphic epithelilal mucin (PEM) is a mucin encoded by the humana MUC-1 gene. It is found in the
apical area of
epithelial cells (lung, stomach, gut).
Its overexpression is related with lung, stomach,
colon, ovary, pancreas.
17)
SFTB Gene,
which encodes the surfactant-proteine B related to lung. The lung surfactant is a lipoprotein complex
consisting of 90% fat and 10% protein, which includes plasma-proteins and SPA, SPC, SPD apolipoproteins. The surfarctant is
secreted by the alveolar cells and maintains stability of the lung tissue.
SPA increases the rate of expansion and raises the stability of
the surfactant monolayer.
18)
LAMININES. They
are major protein BASAL lamina, one of
the layers of basement membrane. Laminines
are influencing cell
differentiation, migration, adhesion as well as phenotype and survival.
19)
INEGRINES are a family of transmembrane proteins involved in the extracellular matrix. They
are receptors that mediate attachment from cells and over-added
tissue. Play a role in cell
signaling, on cell conformation, motility
and cell cycle.
20)
KERATIN5(Keratin
type II cytoskeletal5) is a protein encoded by KRT5 gene. It is found in the 12q12-q23
area. It is
expressed in the basal layer of the epidermis with family KRT14.
21)
S100. S100 proteins
are located
in the
cytoplasm and (or) nucleus and
are involved in many cellular processes. They are located in the 1q21 area. They
are involved in motility, invasion, and tubulin polymerization. The chromosomal
rearrangements and the altered expression of this gene are involved in tumor
metastasis.
22)
GJB5(GAP
JONCTION BETA-5). It is also known as CONNEXIN-31.1. It is a protein encoded in humnas by GJB5 gene.
GAP JONCTION are conduits that allow direct passage from
one cell to another cell of the small cytoplasmic molecules (ions, intermediate products, secondary
messengers). Gap junction channels have subunits
of the connexin protein, which are encoded
by multiple gene families.
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.
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